https://doi.org/10.4081/gh.2020.855
Understanding the relationship between land use and land cover and malaria in Nepal
Submitted: 2 January 2020
Accepted: 11 July 2020
Published: 29 December 2020
Accepted: 11 July 2020
Abstract Views: 1615
PDF: 752
HTML: 24
HTML: 24
Publisher's note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Authors
Malaria is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity globally. Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) change have been found to affect the transmission of malaria in other regions, but no study has examined such relationships in Nepal. Therefore, this study has three aims: first, to analyze the spatial and temporal trend of Malaria Incidence Rate (MIR) between 1999 and 2015, second to assess LULC change between 2000 and 2010, and finally to understand the relationship between LULC and malaria in Nepal. The land cover types examined are forest, water bodies, agriculture, grassland, shrubland, barren areas, built-up areas, and rice paddies. The temporal trend of MIR and the relationship between MIR and LULC were evaluated using Poisson and negative binomial regression. Forest, water bodies, and built-up area increased in Nepal by 0.8%, 8.2%, and 28.4% respectively, while other LULC variables decreased between 2000 and 2010. MIR decreased significantly in 21 districts; however, four districts, namely Pyuthan, Kaski, Rupandehi, and Siraha, had a significantly increasing MIR trend between 1999 and 2015. MIR was positively related to water bodies and rice paddies during 2001, 2002, and 2003 but negatively related to grassland during 2010. However, there was no relationship between LULC and MIR during 2000, 2011, 2012 and 2013. This information will be helpful for public health officials to increase control efforts in those districts and in areas near water bodies and rice paddies to aid in their effort to eliminate malaria from Nepal.
Aksha SK, Juran L, Resler, LM, 2018. Spatial and temporal analysis of natural hazard mortality in Nepal. Environ Hazards 17:163-179.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17477891.2017.1398630
Aksha SK, Emrich CT, 2020. Benchmarking community disaster resilience in Nepal. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(6).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17061985
Badu M, 2013. Assessing the impact of climate change on human health: status and trends of malaria and diarrhea with respect to temperature and rainfall variability in Nepal. Kath Uni J Sci Engi Tech 9:96-105.
Bhandari GP, Dhimal M, Gurung S, Bhusal C, 2013. Climate Change and Malaria in Jhapa District of Nepal: Emerging Evidences from Nepal. J Health Manage 15:141-150.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0972063413486026
Bharati K, Ganguly NK, 2013. Tackling the malaria problem in the South-East Asia Region: need for a change in policy? Indian J Med Res 137: 36–47.
CBS, 2014. Population monograph of Nepal Volume II. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal. Retrieved from https://nepalindata.com/resource/population-monograph-of-nepal-volume-ii-social-demography/ on April 2017.
CDC, 2017. Malaria. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/ on April 2017.
Dhimal M, Ahrens B, Kuch U, 2014a. Altitudinal shift of malaria vectors and malaria elimination in Nepal. Malar J 13:26.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-13-S1-P26
Dhimal M, O’Hara RB, Karki R, Thakur GD, Kuch U, Ahrens B, 2014b. Spatio-temporal distribution of malaria and its association with climatic factors and vector-control interventions in two high-risk districts of Nepal. Malar J 13:457.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-13-457
Dhimal M, Ahrens B, Kuch U, 2014c. Malaria control in Nepal 1963-2012: challenges on the path towards elimination. Malar J 13:241.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-13-241
DoHS, 1999. Annual Report 2056/57 (1999/2000). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2000. Annual Report 2057/58 (2000/2001). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2001. Annual Report 2058/59 (2001/2002). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2002. Annual Report 2059/60 (2002/2003). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2003. Annual Report 2060/61 (2003/2004). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2004. Annual Report 2061/62 (2004/2005). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2005. Annual Report 2062/63 (2005/2006). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2006. Annual Report 2063/64 (2006/2007). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2007. Annual Report 2064/65 (2007/2008). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2008. Annual Report 2065/66 (2008/2009). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2009. Annual Report 2066/67 (2009/2010). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2010. Annual Report 2067/68 (2010/2011). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2011. Annual Report 2068/69 (2011/2012). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2012. Annual Report 2069/70 (2012/2013). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2013. Annual Report 2070/71 (2013/2014). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2014. Annual Report 2071/72 (2014/2015). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2015. Annual Report 2072/73 (2015/2016). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on February, 2017.
DoHS, 2017. Annual Report 2074/75 (2017/2018). Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from https://dohs.gov.np/publications/ on December, 2019.
EDCD, 2011. Nepal Malaria Strategic Plan 2011–2016 (Revised Version- December 2011). Epidemiology and Disease Control Division, Department of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Retrieved from http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/471029/20810332/1351638302043/Nepal+Strategic+Plan+2011-1016.pdf?token=nWYAdQ7Y9YMVX0ydfBODxHdOxFQ%3D on April 2020.
Evans OP, Adenomon MO, 2014. Modelling the prevalence of malaria in Niger State: An application of Poisson regression and negative binomial regression models. Int J Phys Sci, 2:61-68.
Ghebreyesus TA, Haile M, Witten KH, Getachew A, Yohannes AM, Yohannes M, Teklehaimanot HD, Lindsay SW, Byass P, 1999. Incidence of malaria among children living near dams in northern Ethiopia: community based incidence survey. BMJ 319:663-666.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.319.7211.663
Ghimire K, 2016. Geographic distribution of malaria in Nepal (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2097/34464/KabitaGhimire2016.pdf?sequence=5 on February, 2017.
ICIMOD, 2017. Land Cover Dynamics in Nepal. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu. Retrieved from http://geoapps.icimod.org/landcover/nepallandcover/ on April 2017.
Ijumba JN, Lindsay SW, 2001. Impact of irrigation on malaria in Africa: Paddies paradox. Med Vet Entomol, 15:1–11.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2915.2001.00279.x
Jarju LB, Fillinger U, Green C, Louca V, Majambere S, Lindsay SW, 2009. Agriculture and the promotion of insect pests: Rice cultivation in river floodplains and malaria vectors in the Gambia. Malar J 8:170.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-8-170
Jumi LG, 2017. Generalized Linear Models of Malaria Incidence in Jubek State, South Sudan. Sci J App Math Stat 5:134-138.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sjams.20170504.12
Kakchapati S, Ardkaew J, 2011. Modeling of Malaria Incidence in Nepal. J Res Health Sci 11:7–13.
Khaemba BM, Mutani A, Bett MK, 1994. Studies of anopheline mosquitoes transmitting malaria in a newly developed highland urban area: a case study of Moi University and its environs. East Afr Med J 71:159-164.
Klingenberg E, van der Hoek W, Amerasinghe FP, 2004. A malaria risk analysis in an irrigated area in Sri Lanka. Acta Trop 89:215-225.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2003.08.007
Koudou BG, Tano Y, Doumbia M, Nsanzabana C, Cissé, G, Girardin O, Dao D, N'Goran EK, Vounatsou P, Bordmann G, Keiser J, Tanner M, Utzinger J, 2005. Malaria transmission dynamics in central Côte d’Ivoire: the influence of changing patterns of irrigated rice agriculture. Med Vet Entomol 19:27–37.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0269-283X.2005.00530.x
Lindblade KA, Walker ED, Onapa AW, Katungu J, Wilson ML, 2000. Land use change alters malaria transmission parameters by modifying temperature in a highland area of Uganda. Trop Med Int Health5:263-274.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3156.2000.00551.x
MoAD, 2013. Statistical Information on Nepalese agriculture, time series information 1999/2000-2011/2012. Ministry of Agricultural Development, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.
Prothero RM, 1999. Malaria, Forests and People in Southeast Asia. Sing J Trop Geog 20:76–85.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9493.00044
Ripert CL, Raccurt CP, 1987. The impact of small dams on parasitic diseases in Cameroon. Parasitol Today 3:287-289.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(87)90111-6
Sarkar A, Aronson KJ, Patil S, Hugar LB, van Loon GW, 2012. Emerging health risks associated with modern agriculture practices: A comprehensive study in India. Environ Res115:37-50.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2012.03.005
Sharma VP, Srivastava A, Nagpal BN, 1994. A study of the relationship of rice cultivation and annual parasite incidence of malaria in India. Soc Sci Med 38:165-178.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(94)90312-3
UCSF, 2015. Eliminating Malaria in Nepal. University of California San Francisco, California. Retrieved from https://globalhealthsciences.ucsf.edu/sites/globalhealthsciences.ucsf.edu/files/pub/nepal2015-final.pdf on March 2017.
Uddin K, Gilani H, Murthy MSR, Kotru R, Qamer FM, 2015. Forest condition monitoring using very-high-resolution satellite imagery in a remote mountain watershed in Nepal. Mount Res Dev, 35:264-277.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-14-00074.1
Vanwambeke SO, Lambin EF, Eichhorn MP, Flasse SP, Harbach RE, Oskam L, Somboon P, Beers Sv, Benthem BHB, Walton C, Butlin RK, 2007. Impact of land-use change on dengue and malaria in northern Thailand. EcoHealth 4:37-51.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-007-0085-5
WHO, 2011. Nepal Malaria Programme Review (7–16 June 2010). World Health Organization Regional Office for South - East Asia, New Delhi.
WHO, 2018. Malaria. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/ on January, 2018
WHO, 2019. Malaria. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/malaria/en/ on December 2019
Yasuoka J, Levins R, 2007. Impact of deforestation and agricultural development on anopheline ecology and malaria epidemiology. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76:450–460.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2007.76.450
How to Cite
Bhattarai, S., Kolivras, K. N., Ghimire, K., & Shao, Y. (2020). Understanding the relationship between land use and land cover and malaria in Nepal. Geospatial Health, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.4081/gh.2020.855
Copyright (c) 2020 The Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
PAGEPress has chosen to apply the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0) to all manuscripts to be published.
